lyng/docs/tutorial.md

Ling tutorial

Ling is a very simple language, where we take only most important and popular features from other scripts and languages. In particular, we adopt principle of minimal confusion[^1]. In other word, the code usually works as expected when you see it. So, nothing unusual.

Other documents to read maybe after this one:

• Advanced topics
• OOP notes
• math in Ling
• Some class references: List, Real

Expressions

Everything is an expression in Ling. Even an empty block:

// empty block
>>> void

any block also returns it's last expression:

if( true ) {
    2 + 2
    3 + 3
}
>>> 6

If you don't want block to return anything, use void:

fn voidFunction() {
    3 + 4 // this will be ignored
    void
}
voidFunction()
>>> void

otherwise, last expression will be returned:

fn normalize(value, minValue, maxValue) {
    (value - minValue) / (maxValue-minValue)
}
normalize( 4, 0.0, 10.0)
>>> 0.4

Every construction is an expression that returns something (or void):

val x = 111 // or autotest will fail!
val limited = if( x > 100 ) 100 else x
limited
>>> 100

You can use blocks in if statement, as expected:

val x = 200
val limited = if( x > 100 ) {
    100 + x * 0.1    
}
else 
    x
limited
>>> 120.0

When putting multiple statments in the same line it is convenient and recommended to use ;:

var from; var to
from = 0; to = 100
>>> 100

Notice: returned value is 100 as assignment operator returns its assigned value. Most often you can omit ;, but improves readability and prevent some hardly seen bugs.

Assignments

Assignemnt is an expression that changes its lvalue and return assigned value:

var x = 100
x = 20
println(5 + (x=6)) // 11: x changes its value!
x
>>> 11
>>> 6

As the assignment itself is an expression, you can use it in strange ways. Just remember to use parentheses as assignment operation insofar is left-associated and will not allow chained assignments (we might fix it later). Use parentheses insofar:

var x = 0
var y = 0
x = (y = 5)
assert(x==5)
assert(y==5)
>>> void

Note that assignment operator returns rvalue, it can't be assigned.

Modifying arithmetics

There is a set of assigning operations: +=, -=, *=, /= and even %=.

var x = 5
assert( 25 == (x*=5) )
assert( 25 == x)
assert( 24 == (x-=1) )
assert( 12 == (x/=2) )
x
>>> 12

Notice the parentheses here: the assignment has low priority!

These operators return rvalue, unmodifiable.

Assignment return r-value!

Math

It is rather simple, like everywhere else:

val x = 2.0
sin(x * π/4) / 2.0
>>> 0.5

See math for more on it. Notice using Greek as identifier, all languages are allowed.

Logical operation could be used the same

var x = 10
++x >= 11
>>> true

Supported operators

op	ass	args	comments
+	+=	Int or Real
-	-=	Int or Real	infix
*	*=	Int or Real
/	/=	Int or Real
%	%=	Int or Real
&&		Bool
||		Bool
!x		Bool
<		String, Int, Real	(1)
<=		String, Int, Real	(1)
>=		String, Int, Real	(1)
>		String, Int, Real	(1)
==		Any	(1)
===		Any	(2)
!==		Any	(2)
!=		Any	(1)
++a, a++		Int
--a, a--		Int

(1)

comparison are based on comparison operator which can be overloaded

(2)

referential equality means left and right operands references exactly same instance of some object. Nothe that all singleton object, like null, are referentially equal too, while string different literals even being equal are most likely referentially not equal:

assert( null == null) // singletons assert( null === null) // but, for non-singletons: assert( 5 == 5) assert( 5 !== 5) assert( "foo" !== "foo" )

void

Variables

Much like in kotlin, there are variables:

var name = "Sergey"

Variables can be not initialized at declaration, in which case they must be assigned before use, or an exception will be thrown:

var foo
// WRONG! Exception will be thrown at next line:
foo + "bar"

Correct pattern is:

foo = "foo"
// now is OK:
foo + bar

This is though a rare case when you need uninitialized variables, most often you can use conditional operators and even loops to assign results (see below).

Constants

Almost the same, using val:

val foo = 1
foo += 1 // this will throw exception

Constants

Same as in kotlin:

val HalfPi = π / 2

Note using greek characters in identifiers! All letters allowed, but remember who might try to read your script, most likely will know some English, the rest is the pure uncertainty.

Defining functions

fun check(amount) {
    if( amount > 100 )
        "enough"
    else
        "more"
}
>>> Callable@...

Notice how function definition return a value, instance of Callable.

You can use both fn and fun. Note that function declaration is an expression returning callable.

There are default parameters in Ling:

fn check(amount, prefix = "answer: ") {
    prefix + if( amount > 100 )
        "enough"
    else
        "more" 
}
assert( "do: more" == check(10, "do: ") )
check(120)
>>> "answer: enough"

Closures

Each block has an isolated context that can be accessed from closures. For example:

var counter = 1

// this is ok: coumter is incremented
fun increment(amount=1) {
    // use counter from a closure:
    counter = counter + amount
}

val taskAlias = fun someTask() {
    // this obscures global outer var with a local one
    var counter = 0
    // ...
    counter = 1
    // ...
    counter
}
>>> void

As was told, fun statement return callable for the function, it could be used as a parameter, or elsewhere to call it:

val taskAlias = fun someTask() {
    println("Hello")
}
// call the callable stored in the var
taskAlias()
// or directly:
someTask()
>>> Hello
>>> Hello
>>> void

If you need to create unnamed function, use alternative syntax (TBD, like { -> } ?)

Lists (aka arrays)

Ling has built-in mutable array class List with simple literals:

[1, "two", 3.33].size
>>> 3

Lists can contain any type of objects, lists too:

val list = [1, [2, 3], 4]
assert(list.size == 3)
// second element is a list too:
assert(list[1].size == 2)
>>> void

Notice usage of indexing. You can use negative indexes to offset from the end of the list; see more in Lists.

When you want to "flatten" it to single array, you can use splat syntax:

[1, ...[2,3], 4]
>>> [1, 2, 3, 4]

Of course, you can splat from anything that is List (or list-like, but it will be defined later):

val a = ["one", "two"]
val b = [10.1, 20.2]
["start", ...b, ...a, "end"]
>>> ["start", 10.1, 20.2, "one", "two", "end"]

Of course, you can set any list element:

val a = [1, 2, 3]
a[1] = 200
a
>>> [1, 200, 3]

Lists are comparable, as long as their respective elements are:

assert( [1,2,3] == [1,2,3])

// but they are _different_ objects:
assert( [1,2,3] !== [1,2,3])

// when sizes are different, but common part is equal,
// longer is greater
assert( [1,2,3] > [1,2] )

// otherwise, where the common part is greater, the list is greater:
assert( [1,2,3] < [1,3] )
>>> void

All comparison operators with list are working ok. Also, you can concatenate lists:

assert( [5, 4] + ["foo", 2] == [5, 4, "foo", 2])
>>> void

To add elements to the list:

val x = [1,2]
x.add(3)
assert( x == [1,2,3])
// same as x += ["the", "end"] but faster:
x.add("the", "end")
assert( x == [1, 2, 3, "the", "end"])
>>> void

Self-modifying concatenation by += also works:

val x = [1, 2]
x += [3, 4]
assert( x == [1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> void

You can insert elements at any position using addAt:

val x = [1,2,3]
x.addAt(1, "foo", "bar")
assert( x == [1, "foo", "bar", 2, 3])
>>> void

Using splat arguments can simplify inserting list in list:

val x = [1, 2, 3]
x.addAt( 1, ...[0,100,0])
x
>>> [1, 0, 100, 0, 2, 3]

Using negative indexes can insert elements as offset from the end, for example:

val x = [1,2,3]
x.addAt(-1, 10)
x
>>> [1, 2, 10, 3]

Note that to add to the end you still need to use add or positive index of the after-last element:

val x = [1,2,3]
x.addAt(3, 10)
x
>>> [1, 2, 3, 10]

Removing list items

val x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
x.removeAt(2)
assert( x == [1, 2, 4, 5])
// or remove range (start inclusive, end exclusive):
x.removeAt(1,3)    
assert( x == [1, 5])
>>> void

Again, you can use negative indexes. For example, removing last elements like:

val x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

// remove last:
x.removeAt(-1)
assert( x == [1, 2, 3, 4])

// remove 3 last:
x.removeAt(-3,1)    
assert( x == [1])
>>> void

Flow control operators

if-then-else

As everywhere else, and as expression:

val count = 11
if( count > 10 )
    println("too much")
else {
    // do something else
    println("just "+count)
}
>>> too much
>>> void

Notice returned value void: it is because of println have no return value, e.g., void.

Or, more neat:

var count = 3
println( if( count > 10 ) "too much" else "just " + count )
>>> just 3
>>> void

while

Regular pre-condition while loop, as expression, loop returns it's last line result:

var count = 0
while( count < 5 ) {
    count++
    count * 10
}
>>> 50

We can break as usual:

var count = 0
while( count < 5 ) {
    if( count < 5 ) break
    count = ++count * 10
}
>>> void

Why void? Because break drops out without the chute, not providing anything to return. Indeed, we should provide exit value in the case:

var count = 0
while( count < 50 ) {
    if( count > 3 ) break "too much"
    count = ++count * 10
    "wrong "+count
}
>>> "too much"

Breaking nested loops

If you have several loops and want to exit not the inner one, use labels:

var count = 0
// notice the label:
outerLoop@ while( count < 5 ) {
    var innerCount = 0
    while( innerCount < 100 ) {
        innerCount = innerCount + 1

        if( innerCount == 5 && count == 2 )
            // and here we break the labelled loop:
            break@outerLoop "5/2 situation"
    }
    count = count + 1
    count * 10
}
>>> "5/2 situation"

and continue

We can skip the rest of the loop and restart it, as usual, with continue operator.

var count = 0
var countEven = 0
while( count < 10 ) {
    count = count + 1
    if( count % 2 == 1) continue
    countEven = countEven + 1
}
"found even numbers: " + countEven
>>> "found even numbers: 5"

continue can't "return" anything: it just restarts the loop. It can use labeled loops to restart outer ones:

var count = 0
var total = 0
// notice the label:
outerLoop@ while( count < 5 ) {
    count = count + 1
    var innerCount = 0
    while( innerCount < 10 ) {
        innerCount = innerCount + 1
        if( innerCount == 10 )
            continue@outerLoop
    }
    // we don't reach it because continue above restarts our loop
    total = total + 1
}
total
>>> 0

Notice that total remains 0 as the end of the outerLoop@ is not reachable: continue is always called and always make Ling to skip it.

Labels@

The label can be any valid identifier, even a keyword, labels exist in their own, isolated world, so no risk of occasional clash. Labels are also scoped to their context and do not exist outside it.

Right now labels are implemented only for the while loop. It is intended to be implemented for all loops and returns.

Self-assignments in expression

There are auto-increments and auto-decrements:

var counter = 0
assert(counter++ * 100 == 0)
assert(counter == 1)
>>> void

but:

var counter = 0
assert( ++counter * 100 == 100)
assert(counter == 1)
>>> void

The same with --:

var count = 100
var sum = 0
while( count > 0 ) sum = sum + count--
sum
>>> 5050

There are self-assigning version for operators too:

var count = 100
var sum = 0
while( count > 0 ) sum += count--
sum
>>> 5050

Comments

// single line comment
var result = null // here we will store the result
>>> void

Integral data types

type	description	literal samples
Int	64 bit signed	1 -22 0x1FF
Real	64 bit double	1.0, 2e-11
Bool	boolean	true false
String	unicode string, no limits	"hello" (see below)
Void	no value could exist, singleton	void
Null	missing value, singleton	null
Fn	callable type

See also math operations

String details

String operations

Concatenation is a +: "hello " + name works as expected. No confusion.

Literals

String literal could be multiline:

"Hello
World"

though multiline literals is yet work in progress.

Built-in functions

See math functions, and:

name	description
assert(condition,message="assertion failed")	runtime code check. There will be an option to skip them