18 KiB
Lying tutorial
Lying is a very simple language, where we take only most important and popular features from other scripts and languages. In particular, we adopt principle of minimal confusion[^1]. In other word, the code usually works as expected when you see it. So, nothing unusual.
Other documents to read maybe after this one:
- Advanced topics
- OOP notes
- math in Lying
- Some class references: List, Real, Range
Expressions
Everything is an expression in Lying. Even an empty block:
// empty block
>>> void
any block also returns it's last expression:
if( true ) {
2 + 2
3 + 3
}
>>> 6
If you don't want block to return anything, use void:
fn voidFunction() {
3 + 4 // this will be ignored
void
}
voidFunction()
>>> void
otherwise, last expression will be returned:
fn normalize(value, minValue, maxValue) {
(value - minValue) / (maxValue-minValue)
}
normalize( 4, 0.0, 10.0)
>>> 0.4
Every construction is an expression that returns something (or void):
val x = 111 // or autotest will fail!
val limited = if( x > 100 ) 100 else x
limited
>>> 100
You can use blocks in if statement, as expected:
val x = 200
val limited = if( x > 100 ) {
100 + x * 0.1
}
else
x
limited
>>> 120.0
When putting multiple statments in the same line it is convenient and recommended to use ;:
var from; var to
from = 0; to = 100
>>> 100
Notice: returned value is 100 as assignment operator returns its assigned value.
Most often you can omit ;, but improves readability and prevent some hardly seen bugs.
Assignments
Assignemnt is an expression that changes its lvalue and return assigned value:
var x = 100
x = 20
println(5 + (x=6)) // 11: x changes its value!
x
>>> 11
>>> 6
As the assignment itself is an expression, you can use it in strange ways. Just remember to use parentheses as assignment operation insofar is left-associated and will not allow chained assignments (we might fix it later). Use parentheses insofar:
var x = 0
var y = 0
x = (y = 5)
assert(x==5)
assert(y==5)
>>> void
Note that assignment operator returns rvalue, it can't be assigned.
Modifying arithmetics
There is a set of assigning operations: +=, -=, *=, /= and even %=.
var x = 5
assert( 25 == (x*=5) )
assert( 25 == x)
assert( 24 == (x-=1) )
assert( 12 == (x/=2) )
x
>>> 12
Notice the parentheses here: the assignment has low priority!
These operators return rvalue, unmodifiable.
Assignment return r-value!
Math
It is rather simple, like everywhere else:
val x = 2.0
sin(x * π/4) / 2.0
>>> 0.5
See math for more on it. Notice using Greek as identifier, all languages are allowed.
Logical operation could be used the same
var x = 10
++x >= 11
>>> true
Supported operators
| op | ass | args | comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| + | += | Int or Real | |
| - | -= | Int or Real | infix |
| * | *= | Int or Real | |
| / | /= | Int or Real | |
| % | %= | Int or Real | |
| && | Bool | ||
| || | Bool | ||
| !x | Bool | ||
| < | String, Int, Real | (1) | |
| <= | String, Int, Real | (1) | |
| >= | String, Int, Real | (1) | |
| > | String, Int, Real | (1) | |
| == | Any | (1) | |
| === | Any | (2) | |
| !== | Any | (2) | |
| != | Any | (1) | |
| ++a, a++ | Int | ||
| --a, a-- | Int |
- (1)
- comparison are based on comparison operator which can be overloaded
- (2)
- referential equality means left and right operands references exactly same instance of some object. Note that all
singleton object, like
null, are referentially equal too, while string different literals even being equal are most likely referentially not equal
Reference quality and object equality example:
assert( null == null) // singletons
assert( null === null)
// but, for non-singletons:
assert( 5 == 5)
assert( 5 !== 5)
assert( "foo" !== "foo" )
>>> void
Variables
Much like in kotlin, there are variables:
var name = "Sergey"
Variables can be not initialized at declaration, in which case they must be assigned before use, or an exception will be thrown:
var foo
// WRONG! Exception will be thrown at next line:
foo + "bar"
Correct pattern is:
foo = "foo"
// now is OK:
foo + bar
This is though a rare case when you need uninitialized variables, most often you can use conditional operators and even loops to assign results (see below).
Constants
Almost the same, using val:
val foo = 1
foo += 1 // this will throw exception
Constants
Same as in kotlin:
val HalfPi = π / 2
Note using greek characters in identifiers! All letters allowed, but remember who might try to read your script, most likely will know some English, the rest is the pure uncertainty.
Defining functions
fun check(amount) {
if( amount > 100 )
"enough"
else
"more"
}
>>> Callable@...
Notice how function definition return a value, instance of Callable.
You can use both fn and fun. Note that function declaration is an expression returning callable.
There are default parameters in Lying:
fn check(amount, prefix = "answer: ") {
prefix + if( amount > 100 )
"enough"
else
"more"
}
assert( "do: more" == check(10, "do: ") )
check(120)
>>> "answer: enough"
Closures
Each block has an isolated context that can be accessed from closures. For example:
var counter = 1
// this is ok: coumter is incremented
fun increment(amount=1) {
// use counter from a closure:
counter = counter + amount
}
val taskAlias = fun someTask() {
// this obscures global outer var with a local one
var counter = 0
// ...
counter = 1
// ...
counter
}
>>> void
As was told, fun statement return callable for the function, it could be used as a parameter, or elsewhere
to call it:
val taskAlias = fun someTask() {
println("Hello")
}
// call the callable stored in the var
taskAlias()
// or directly:
someTask()
>>> Hello
>>> Hello
>>> void
If you need to create unnamed function, use alternative syntax (TBD, like { -> } ?)
Lists (aka arrays)
Lying has built-in mutable array class List with simple literals:
[1, "two", 3.33].size
>>> 3
List is an implementation of the type Array, and through it Collection and Iterable.
Lists can contain any type of objects, lists too:
val list = [1, [2, 3], 4]
assert( list is List ) // concrete implementatino
assert( list is Array ) // general interface
assert(list.size == 3)
// second element is a list too:
assert(list[1].size == 2)
>>> void
Notice usage of indexing. You can use negative indexes to offset from the end of the list; see more in Lists.
When you want to "flatten" it to single array, you can use splat syntax:
[1, ...[2,3], 4]
>>> [1, 2, 3, 4]
Of course, you can splat from anything that is List (or list-like, but it will be defined later):
val a = ["one", "two"]
val b = [10.1, 20.2]
["start", ...b, ...a, "end"]
>>> ["start", 10.1, 20.2, "one", "two", "end"]
Of course, you can set any list element:
val a = [1, 2, 3]
a[1] = 200
a
>>> [1, 200, 3]
Lists are comparable, and it works well as long as their respective elements are:
assert( [1,2,3] == [1,2,3])
// but they are _different_ objects:
assert( [1,2,3] !== [1,2,3])
// when sizes are different, but common part is equal,
// longer is greater
assert( [1,2,3] > [1,2] )
// otherwise, where the common part is greater, the list is greater:
assert( [1,2,3] < [1,3] )
>>> void
The simplest way to concatenate lists is using + and +=:
// + works to concatenate iterables:
assert( [5, 4] + ["foo", 2] == [5, 4, "foo", 2])
var list = [1, 2]
// append allow adding iterables: all elements of it:
list += [2, 1]
// or you can append a single element:
list += "end"
assert( list == [1, 2, 2, 1, "end"])
>>> void
Important note: the pitfall of using += is that you can't append in Iterable instance as an object: it will always add all its contents. Use list.add to add a single iterable instance:
var list = [1, 2]
val other = [3, 4]
// appending lists is clear:
list += other
assert( list == [1, 2, 3, 4] )
// but appending other Iterables could be confusing:
list += (10..12)
assert( list == [1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12])
>>> void
Use list.add to avoid confusion:
var list = [1, 2]
val other = [3, 4]
// appending lists is clear:
list.add(other)
assert( list == [1, 2, [3, 4]] )
// but appending other Iterables could be confusing:
list.add(10..12)
assert( list == [1, 2, [3, 4], (10..12)])
>>> void
To add elements to the list:
val x = [1,2]
x.add(3)
assert( x == [1,2,3])
// same as x += ["the", "end"] but faster:
x.add("the", "end")
assert( x == [1, 2, 3, "the", "end"])
>>> void
Self-modifying concatenation by += also works:
val x = [1, 2]
x += [3, 4]
assert( x == [1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> void
You can insert elements at any position using addAt:
val x = [1,2,3]
x.addAt(1, "foo", "bar")
assert( x == [1, "foo", "bar", 2, 3])
>>> void
Using splat arguments can simplify inserting list in list:
val x = [1, 2, 3]
x.addAt( 1, ...[0,100,0])
x
>>> [1, 0, 100, 0, 2, 3]
Using negative indexes can insert elements as offset from the end, for example:
val x = [1,2,3]
x.addAt(-1, 10)
x
>>> [1, 2, 10, 3]
Note that to add to the end you still need to use add or positive index of the after-last element:
val x = [1,2,3]
x.addAt(3, 10)
x
>>> [1, 2, 3, 10]
Removing list items
val x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
x.removeAt(2)
assert( x == [1, 2, 4, 5])
// or remove range (start inclusive, end exclusive):
x.removeRangeInclusive(1,2)
assert( x == [1, 5])
>>> void
Again, you can use negative indexes. For example, removing last elements like:
val x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
// remove last:
x.removeAt(-1)
assert( x == [1, 2, 3, 4])
// remove 2 last:
x.removeRangeInclusive(-2,-1)
assert( x == [1, 2])
>>> void
Flow control operators
if-then-else
As everywhere else, and as expression:
val count = 11
if( count > 10 )
println("too much")
else {
// do something else
println("just "+count)
}
>>> too much
>>> void
Notice returned value void: it is because of println have no return value, e.g., void.
Or, more neat:
var count = 3
println( if( count > 10 ) "too much" else "just " + count )
>>> just 3
>>> void
while
Regular pre-condition while loop, as expression, loop returns it's last line result:
var count = 0
while( count < 5 ) {
count++
count * 10
}
>>> 50
We can break as usual:
var count = 0
while( count < 5 ) {
if( count < 5 ) break
count = ++count * 10
}
>>> void
Why void? Because break drops out without the chute, not providing anything to return. Indeed, we should provide
exit value in the case:
var count = 0
while( count < 50 ) {
if( count > 3 ) break "too much"
count = ++count * 10
"wrong "+count
}
>>> "too much"
Breaking nested loops
If you have several loops and want to exit not the inner one, use labels:
var count = 0
// notice the label:
outerLoop@ while( count < 5 ) {
var innerCount = 0
while( innerCount < 100 ) {
innerCount = innerCount + 1
if( innerCount == 5 && count == 2 )
// and here we break the labelled loop:
break@outerLoop "5/2 situation"
}
count = count + 1
count * 10
}
>>> "5/2 situation"
and continue
We can skip the rest of the loop and restart it, as usual, with continue operator.
var count = 0
var countEven = 0
while( count < 10 ) {
count = count + 1
if( count % 2 == 1) continue
countEven = countEven + 1
}
"found even numbers: " + countEven
>>> "found even numbers: 5"
continue can't "return" anything: it just restarts the loop. It can use labeled loops to restart outer ones:
var count = 0
var total = 0
// notice the label:
outerLoop@ while( count < 5 ) {
count = count + 1
var innerCount = 0
while( innerCount < 10 ) {
innerCount = innerCount + 1
if( innerCount == 10 )
continue@outerLoop
}
// we don't reach it because continue above restarts our loop
total = total + 1
}
total
>>> 0
Notice that total remains 0 as the end of the outerLoop@ is not reachable: continue is always called and always make
Lying to skip it.
else statement
The while and for loops can be followed by the else block, which is executed when the loop ends normally, without breaks. It allows override loop result value, for example, to not calculate it in every iteration. See for loop example just below.
For loops
For loop are intended to traverse collections, and all other objects that supports size and index access, like lists:
var letters = 0
for( w in ["hello", "wolrd"]) {
letters += w.length
}
"total letters: "+letters
>>> "total letters: 10"
For loop support breaks the same as while loops above:
fun search(haystack, needle) {
for(ch in haystack) {
if( ch == needle)
break "found"
}
else null
}
assert( search("hello", 'l') == "found")
assert( search("hello", 'z') == null)
>>> void
We can use labels too:
fun search(haystacks, needle) {
exit@ for( hs in haystacks ) {
for(ch in hs ) {
if( ch == needle)
break@exit "found"
}
}
else null
}
assert( search(["hello", "world"], 'l') == "found")
assert( search(["hello", "world"], 'z') == null)
>>> void
Self-assignments in expression
There are auto-increments and auto-decrements:
var counter = 0
assert(counter++ * 100 == 0)
assert(counter == 1)
>>> void
but:
var counter = 0
assert( ++counter * 100 == 100)
assert(counter == 1)
>>> void
The same with --:
var count = 100
var sum = 0
while( count > 0 ) sum = sum + count--
sum
>>> 5050
There are self-assigning version for operators too:
var count = 100
var sum = 0
while( count > 0 ) sum += count--
sum
>>> 5050
Ranges
Ranges are convenient to represent the interval between two values:
5 in (0..100)
>>> true
It could be open and closed:
assert( 5 in (1..5) )
assert( 5 !in (1..<5) )
>>> void
Ranges could be inside other ranges:
assert( (2..3) in (1..10) )
>>> void
There are character ranges too:
'd' in 'a'..'e'
>>> true
and you can use ranges in for-loops:
for( x in 'a' ..< 'c' ) println(x)
>>> a
>>> b
>>> void
See Ranges for detailed documentation on it.
Comments
// single line comment
var result = null // here we will store the result
>>> void
Integral data types
| type | description | literal samples |
|---|---|---|
| Int | 64 bit signed | 1 -22 0x1FF |
| Real | 64 bit double | 1.0, 2e-11 |
| Bool | boolean | true false |
| Char | single unicode character | 'S', '\n' |
| String | unicode string, no limits | "hello" (see below) |
| List | mutable list | [1, "two", 3] |
| Void | no value could exist, singleton | void |
| Null | missing value, singleton | null |
| Fn | callable type |
See also math operations
Character details
The type for the character objects is Char.
Char literal escapes
Are the same as in string literals with little difference:
| escape | ASCII value |
|---|---|
| \n | 0x10, newline |
| \t | 0x07, tabulation |
| \ | \ slash character |
| ' | ' apostrophe |
Char instance members
assert( 'a'.code == 0x61 )
>>> void
| member | type | meaning |
|---|---|---|
| code | Int | Unicode code for the character |
String details
String operations
Concatenation is a +: "hello " + name works as expected. No confusion.
Literals
String literal could be multiline:
"Hello
World"
though multiline literals is yet work in progress.
Built-in functions
See math functions. Other general purpose functions are:
| name | description |
|---|---|
| assert(condition,message="assertion failed") | runtime code check. There will be an option to skip them |
| println(args...) | Open for overriding, it prints to stdout. |
Built-in constants
| name | description |
|---|---|
| Real, Int, List, String, List, Bool | Class types for real numbers |
| π | See math |